Energy drink Essay

Introduction The marketing mix (tool largely used by marketers) is composed of the tactics being developed by a company in the 4 P’s areas: product, price, place and promotion, to assist them in pursuing their objectives. These variables have to be carefully managed by the organisation to meet the need of the defined target group. In this essay, we are going to focus on the â€Å"product† variable of the marketing mix. Phillip Kotler has defined the product as: â€Å"anything that can be offered to a market to satisfy a want or need† (Philip Kotler, Marketing Management, 2000). The product, but also its name and packaging, have a major impact on the brand positioning. They are fundamental tools in helping the company to induce trial and repeat purchase; they are also invaluable to achieve the desired awareness levels and to form positive attitudes among both customers and perspective customers. Highly profitable and attractive (giving the trend that consumers are increasingly looking for convenient drinks that boost their energy levels), the energy drinks market is highly competitive. A Mintel’s research (Market Trends category analysis, June 2004, www.PreparedFoods. com), found little brand loyalty among consumers of energy drinks, and a willingness to try a new product if the brand of choice is not available. This suggest the possibility that consumer could be swayed by the appeal of an intriguing package for instance. In this context, we will try to analyse, with the help of the example of the energy drinks, the importance of the naming and packaging tactics employed by the brands to differentiate their offer from the competition (given that the generic attributes of the energy drinks, in terms of composition, are quite similar). 1 Naming and Packaging: marketing mix tools of the product 1. 1 The products levels Philip Kotler, in â€Å"Principles of Marketing†, suggested that a product should be viewed in three levels (a division between five products levels has also been identified by the author but in our case, we are going to keep the simpler scheme of three levels). (source : www. learnmarketing. net/product. htm, 14/09/2004) The core product (level one) represents the core function of the product, a generic attribute that will be identical to all products on a specific market. For example, the main attribute a customer is willing to find when buying an energy drink is a liquid which composition will comprise ingredients that boost his or her energy levels (caffeine, guarana, taurine†¦ ) The actual product (level two) involves the brand, the packaging and the possible added features (benefits) that are provided to differentiate the company’s product from its competitors’. In the case of the energy drinks, if all of them actually provide a liquid that increase energy levels, some of them are sold in cans, other in plastic bottles or in aluminium bottles, using different designs and volumes. The augmented product (level three) is composed of the different additional non-tangible benefits that the company is offering to the customer. This comprises normally added services such as after-sales service, warranties, delivery†¦ It is difficult for a company providing energy drinks to differentiate itself from the competition through this kind of attributes. This is why we decided to focus on the second level of the energy beverages, their name and package. (www. learnmarketing.net/product. htm, 14/09/2004) First, what lies behind the concepts of naming and packaging? 1. 2 Naming â€Å"The naming of the product, service or company is called branding. A brand or name is the label that consumers associate with your product. For this reason, a brand or name should help communicate the product’s positioning and its inherent drama for the consumer† (Roman G. Hiebing Jr and Scott W. Cooper; The successful marketing plan, a disciplined and comprehensive approach; 2003). McCarthy, Perreault and Quester define branding as â€Å"the use of a name, symbol, design or combination of the three to identify a product† and more particularly a brand name as â€Å"a word, letter, or group of words or letters used to identify a product† (Basic Marketing, a managerial approach; 1997). 1. 2. 1 The visual distinctiveness of a brand â€Å"The name is composed of the title by which the company, product, or service is commonly known and the graphic forms of identification, including symbols, logotypes or signatures, tag lines, and representative characters† (Roman G.Hiebing Jr and Scott W. Cooper; The successful marketing plan, a disciplined and comprehensive approach; 2003). Some products, as paper clips, or energy drinks, are poorly differentiated by their â€Å"physical† attributes. One of the marketer’s tasks will be then to develop the brand in terms of its name and its graphic identity (logo), to communicate its differences. Nowadays, the consumers have an astonishing and increasing array of choice. In parallel, their available time to research products and make purchase decisions is decreasing. The importance of having a distinctive name is critical to securing competitive advantage, even more for the products such as the energy drinks, which core specificities have become insufficient to make a real difference. Consumers must be able to recognize the company in its name, logo, graphics and brand’s slogan; these must provide means of identifying the product as different from that of the competitors’, create a visual and verbal distinctiveness. For example, the name and logo of Ralph Lauren (a polo player) have become high means of recognition for the brand. Coca-cola is one of the best-known names in the world (even the characters’ type can be identified and recognized by the customer nowadays). Some companies, which offer different product lines, can use manufacturer brands, a name provided specifically for a product or collection of products that is different from the manufacturer’s one. For example, Powerade is the sport beverage supplied by Coca-Cola. Pepsi-Co sells a sport drink line under the name Gatorade. If the name is the more important element of the brand, one mustn’t forget that a brand can’t be simply reduced to its name. What is important are the positive associations that are going to be related to the brand in the customer’s mind (Philip Kotler, Marketing Management, 2000). 1. 2. 2 Selecting the right name A good brand name can help create brand familiarity (really important in the case of energy drinks). In general, good brand names are:  · short and simple (easy to recognize and remember)  · easy to pronounce  · should be able to be pronounced in all languages  · suggestive of product benefits (but not too generic)  · avoid any potentially undesirable connotation or image. (Roman G. Hiebing Jr and Scott W. Cooper; The successful marketing plan, a disciplined and comprehensive approach; 2003). 1. 3 Packaging 1. 3. 1 Definition â€Å"For manufacturers, packaging holds and protects the product and assists in communicating the products attributes and image. For retailers and service firms, packaging is the inside and outside environment that houses and dispenses the product/services (stores, offices, etc†¦ ), and it helps communicate the company’s attributes and image† (Roman G. Hiebing Jr and Scott W. Cooper; The successful marketing plan, a disciplined and comprehensive approach; 2003). Kotler has defined the packaging as â€Å"the activities of designing and producing the container for a product† (Philip Kotler, Marketing Management, 2000). 1. 3. 2 The functions of packaging Three functions lay behind the concept of packaging: protection, facilitating the product usage and communication. At its basic level, the package serves to protect the product (prevent breakage, exposure to light, exposure to air, spoilage†¦ ) and, in some cases, to hold or to contain it. Packaging also plays a role in protecting the consumer as well. Then, the package has a facilitative role in the use of the product (shape, size, fact that it can be resealed†¦ ). Finally, the product’s package represents a strong communication tool, at two levels. First, the package will comprise indications on the brand name, the product category definition, the composition, the flavour, warnings, directions†¦ Second, packaging also serves an important role in promotion. Its design, size, shape, materials, colour, text and brand mark†¦ should appeal to the target market. For example, yoghurt designated to the women on diet will not have the same package than yoghurt targeting the children. Besides, in today’s cluttered environment, where tens of thousands of brands are fighting for the shopper’s attention, consumers are making more and more purchase decisions at the point of sale. This is why the package, through graphics and colours that are attractive, plays an important role in getting the product noticed in the selves (to encourage impulse purchase for instance). (Philip Kotler, Marketing Management, 2000; Roman G. Hiebing Jr and Scott W. Cooper; The successful marketing plan, a disciplined and comprehensive approach; 2003). 1. 3. 3 The importance of packaging Packaging is a critical marketing tool. It can make an important difference from the competition by meeting customers’ needs more effectively. A better box, wrapper, bottle or can may help to emphasize the distinctiveness or novelty of a product or even result in the opening of a new market. It can even improve the product by making it easier or safer to use and then increase its value in the customer’s mind. Used correctly, the package can then underline the brand image, convey qualities such as freshness, fashion and quality (McCarthy, Perreault & Quester; Basic Marketing, a managerial approach; 1997). It is important that the packaging elements align with the rest of the marketing strategy to support it (pricing, advertising and other marketing tools). For example, an expensive perfume would rather be sold in a crystal bottle than in a plastic one, to underline and support the prestigious image (Philip Kotler, Marketing Management, 2000). 2 Packaging and Naming for the energy drink industry 2. 1 Industry overview. As a relatively new style of beverage in Australia (appearing in the mid 90’s), energy drinks, sometimes known as â€Å"smart drinks†, were originally designed to give people a boost. Other benefits advertised by these products are improved concentration, endurance, stamina and the ability to help combat fatigue (www. education. theage. com. au/pagedetail. asp? intpageid=69&strsection=students&intsectionid=0, 29/09/2004). â€Å"Lifestyles are moving faster. People seem to have become time poor and tend to work harder and play harder. These drinks are for those who need to pack more hours into their day. † (Glenn Martin, general manager, Frucor Beverages, The Age, May 2, 2001). Typically including a high caffeine level as well as vitamins, amino acids and herbal extracts, they usually sell for about $2 – $3. 5 for 250 ml, making them a relatively expensive soft-drink alternative. (www. education. theage. com. au/pagedetail. asp? intpageid=69&strsection=students&intsectionid=0, 27/09/2004). Initially popular in nightclubs and hotels, the energy drink market has been booming during the past few years in Australia, and these beverages are now widely available in supermarkets and convenience stores. Although this market is somewhat new in Australia, it is the fastest growing area of the soft-drink market. (www. education. theage. com. au/pagedetail. asp? intpageid=69&strsection=students&intsectionid=0, 27/09/2004). 2. 1. 1 Leading brands on the Australian market In 2002, the energy drink sales were dominated by four brands in Australia: Frucor Beverages Limited’s V (remaining by far the most significant player with 35% volume share), Red Bull Australia’s Red Bull, Coca-Cola Amatil’s Lift Plus and the Red Eye Company’s Red Eye. With a clever marketing and promotional tactics, V managed to cope with the growing competition and to increase its market share between 2000 and 2002, targeting at teenagers and young adults through the sponsoring of youth oriented events and advertising during youth programming (Euromonitor International, Soft Drinks in Australia, August 2004). However, in the latter part of this same period, the best growth was performed by Coca-Cola Amatil’s Lift Plus, which volume share increased from 5% in 2000 to 14% in 2002, to the detriment of the Red Eye brand which lost market share by the same amount. Red Bull signed, in 2003, a distribution deal with Cadbury Schweppes to solve its volume share decline over the recent years by accessing the group’s strong sale network. (Euromonitor International, Soft Drinks in Australia, August 2004). Considering the huge number of small brands existing today on the energy drink market, we decided to illustrate our study using exclusively the example of these 4 leaders. 2. 1. 2 Target market of the energy drinks The potential customers initially consisted in 90% of young and trendy people (club scene, extreme sports), nocturnal revellers, trendsetters and clubbers. Nowadays, the group of customers has evolved and includes:  · long distance drivers, especially people who work during the night or even employees working out of the office and rushing from appointment to appointment who have come to appreciate Energy Drinks as a good way to wake them up,  · top-level as well as free time sportsmen like snowboarders, mountain bikers, free climbers and downhill racers but also people going to the gym or participating in a triathlon, · pupils or students under stress who use the energy drinks as a new substitute of coffee. Users of Energy Drinks buy/drink them to be mentally and physically top fit and wide awake. They are dynamic, health conscious, achievement-orientated and active, in their jobs as well as in their spare time. Most of them are young but there is an increased interest in these products coming from an older age group of the population. (www. fortunecity. com/tinpan/clapton/843/energydrinks. html#eda, 29/09/2004). 2. 2 Packaging issues and trends on the energy beverage market Due to its growing competitive context, the energy drinks sector saw packaging used as an essential element in establishing brand identity. Consequently, the emergence of plastic bottles was far less pronounced in this sector than in any other soft-drinks sector. 2. 2. 1 Capacity and materials When Red Bull entered the Australian market in 1999, the company employed its trademark slim can and made it an immediate sign of recognition for the energy drink product. The brand wanted to use this as a point of differentiation to help consumers distinguish these highly caffeinated drinks from their carbonate counterparts, and competitors such as Lift Plus, V and Black Stallion followed this example to benefit from the association consumer would make between 250ml can and the type of product (Spark Gale, â€Å"Sports and energy drink market expanding faster than other soft drinks†, Food & Drink Weekly, February 23, 2004). This can size not only differentiate the product from the usual soft drink but also, according to the manufacturers, encourages only moderate consumption at any one time, because of the high caffeine content. Indeed, the energy drinks market has suffered from claims that excessive consumption of caffeine can cause a rise in blood pressure and can trigger events such as heart problems and strokes in some people (Euromonitor International, Global Packaging: Key Trends, www. euromonitor. com. library. vu. edu. au/gmid/default.asp, 20/09/2004) The initial choice of many energy drinks producers for the can packaging has also been determined according to the purpose of the beverage and the needs of its target market. Indeed, the design of the package and its material had to answer the requirements of people responding to the growing trend for eating and drinking â€Å"on-the-move†, had to offer at the same time convenience, solidity, to be light-weighted, easy to handle (the 250 mL format appears more convenient than the usual 330 mL size). Single-serve products also allow busy consumers, to drink in the car, office and in school, which happened to be essential to appeal to a broaden target market as it is now (Marsha Barancik, â€Å"Bottle cans’ have magnetic attraction†, Beverage Industry, March 2003). In fact, when the product entered the market, it was sold in major part in bars, pubs and nightclubs and convenience stores, but as brand like V and Red Bull started to gain distinctive brand identities the started to sell through supermarkets. In this context the 250mL aluminium can presented another advantage since it was an easy shape to offer in multipack that could fit in shelves optimally, and appealed to consumers because of the lower unit prices offered and the ease of transport to their homes (Euromonitor International, Soft Drinks in Australia, August 2004). However, the need for differentiating from competitors and for acquiring a strong brand equity, related to number entry the industry saw these last year, pushed the company to innovate, creating packagings that would differ from the overused 250 mL aluminium can. This need happened to strengthen with the addition of supermarket as a channel of distribution: the number of product and beverages that competed with the brand on the purchase decisional process was suddenly more diverse. To that extent, Red Eye used glass packaging as a strategy (that happened to be successful), to build brand loyalty among its consumers and to break with the expected can packaging offered by competitors. Since then, Lift Plus and V also offered a glass format to differentiate themselves from other canned energy drink brands (Global Packaging: Key Trends, www. euromonitor. com. library. vu. edu. au/gmid/default. asp, 20/09/2004). 2. 2. 2 Graphics and scripts Packaging in the energy drinks also feature distinctive graphics and script. Each brand will attend to convey a differentiated image using specific colours and visual affect known for being associated by the consumer to positive attributes. In 1988, McGraw Hill studied the feelings and the images conveyed by colour in order to show the importance of the packaging in the purchase decision process. As a result, he found out that consumer unconsciously were making the following association:  · Black: formality and elegance.  · White: Crispness  · Violet: tenderness  · Red: revolution, excitement, fire, energy, stanfurd.  · Blue: night, sadness, coolness, tranquillity  · Yellow: happy, warm, optimism  · Aluminium: high-energy voltage (http://www. alumni. berkeley. edu/Students/Group_Resource_Guide/Marketing_Tips_for_CAA_Student_Leaders. asp, 7/10/2004). Looking at each brands packaging, we can see that, according to this theory, different feelings are meant to be evocated by each brand. Except for Lift Plus, that is more oriented towards young people and students/children market, the aluminium colour is present on each packaging. The blue of the Red Bull can immediately reminds the customer with the clubbing and the nightlife while the red letter stands for energy and excitement. The yellow can of Lift Plus gives a joyful and playful image to the beverage and makes it a drink to be consumed during the day rather than in nightclub as a mixed drink (like its competitor Red Eye, Red Bull, or V). We can notice also the use of black in the two other packages, that gives a classy and distinctive image to the beverage, allowing them to stand in bar and club’s shelves. 2. 3 Naming issues on the energy drinks market In general, even if branding is one of the most important steps in the marketing plan of a product (a good name provides a strong mean of distinctiveness for the brand), there is not much secondary information available on the naming strategy adopted by the companies. Concerning the energy drinks industry, we are going to focus on the major brands present on the Australian market: V, Lift Plus, Red Eye and Red Bull. V is a typical example of a simple and memorable brand name that quickly identifies the product with an idea of vibrant, velocity, vitality, vigour†¦ Above all, V is the widely known abbreviation for volt, positioning the product as a high energy provider (www. frucor. com/brands/aus/new_age. html, 03/10/2004). The name Lift Plus explicitly suggests the benefits of the drink that, according to its producer Coca-Cola Amantil, as been designed â€Å"for people who work and play hard and need a boost to help them make the most of their waking hours†. It is also named after the well-known beverage â€Å"Lift†, to inform the consumer on the common point between the two beverages: both have citrus-based flavour (http://www. cokebuddy. com.au/about_brands. asp, 03/10/2004). Red Bull has been the first energy drink to enter the global market, the name of the product reflects well its attributes and benefits (the bull is a powerful animal, it represents the high level of energy the consumer is going to get by drinking this product). But this brand name has also been subject to a lot of controversy (that has finally benefited the brand by creating some promotion around it) related to the fact that the word â€Å"Bull† created a direct association in the public mind with one of the ingredient included in the formula: the Taurine. However, despite whatever conclusions one might draw from the name, Red Bull contains no substances of animal origin; even the taurine used in the formulation is synthetically produced (www. snopes. com/toxins/redbull. htm, 03/10/2004). Again, as for its competitor Red Eye, the code of colour (â€Å"Red†) is used as a way to suggest the energy and improvement of physical performance provided by the consumption of the beverage. Red Eye, as a following entrant in the energy drink market (after Red Bull), has used the notoriety of the Red Bull name as part of its naming strategy (the two brand names are quite similar). The term â€Å"eye† reflects the personality of the product, putting the stress on the ability of the product to provide its consumer with an improved ability to concentrate, an increased alertness and an enhanced reaction time (www. red-eye. com. au/classic. html, 03/10/2004). (Roman G. Hiebing Jr. and Scott W. Cooper, The successful marketing plan, McGraw-Hill, 2003). Conclusion Naming and packaging are critical marketing tools for the company; they assist its brand differentiation in the customer’s mind and product identification in the shelves of the store. Even if these two elements are even more important for products as energy drinks, that have quite generic core attributes (their composition is almost similar) and that cannot differentiate their offer using the augmented level of the product, we discovered through our research that a brand mustn’t limit its marketing mix tactic to its product features (naming and packaging). The three other P’s areas (Price, Place, and Promotion) are critical tools to strengthen the differentiation of its offer. The leading brands demonstrate it by supporting their product with heavy advertising campaigns and diverse promotional actions, as they proved to be essential to ensure their brand equity (sponsoring, sample distribution, co-branding, commercials, ads in various medias†¦ ). The study of the energy drinks market also showed us how the strategies linked to the issues of naming and packaging can evolve as the industry changes. Indeed, we discovered how these two aspects of the â€Å"actual product† could be used as way to assimilate the brand to a particular type of product, as well as a differentiation feature. In fact, the energy drinks market demonstrated us that the maturity of the industry influences greatly the challenges implied by the choice of a name or a package. Indeed, all the companies which launched their energy drink at the introduction of the product in the soft drink industry, chose to follow the first entrant (Red Bull) on its package choice, in order to clearly indicate to the customer the kind of product provided. As the industry matured, and the competition increased, offering a packaging that actually differentiated the brand seemed to be the only way to gain customer loyalty and to survive in this mature market. Sources : Literature:  · Philip Kotler, Marketing Management, 2000  · Roman G. Hiebing Jr and Scott W. Cooper; The successful marketing plan, a disciplined and comprehensive approach; 2003  · McCarthy, Perreault & Quester; Basic Marketing, a managerial approach; 1997 Websites:  · Market Trends category analysis, June 2004, www.PreparedFoods. com  · www. learnmarketing. net/product. htm  · www. education. theage. com. au/pagedetail. asp? intpageid=69&strsection=students&intsectionid=0  · www. fortunecity. com/tinpan/clapton/843/energydrinks. html#eda  · Euromonitor International, Soft Drinks in Australia, August 2004, www. euromonitor. com. library. vu. edu. au/gmid/default. asp  · Euromonitor International Global Packaging: Key Trends, August 2004, www. euromonitor. com. library. vu. edu. au/gmid/default. asp  · www. alumni. berkeley.edu/Students/Group_Resource_Guide/Marketing_Tips_for_CAA_Student_Leaders. asp  · www. frucor. com/brands/aus/new_age. html  · www. cokebuddy. com. au/about_brands. asp  · www. snopes. com/toxins/redbull. htm  · www. red-eye. com. au/classic. html Articles :  · Glenn Martin, general manager, Frucor Beverages, The Age, May 2, 2001  · Spark Gale, â€Å"Sports and energy drink market expanding faster than other soft drinks†, Food & Drink Weekly, February 23, 2004  · Marsha Barancik, â€Å"Bottle cans’ have magnetic attraction†, Beverage Industry, March 2003.

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Research paper on methods of healthcare quality measurement - Essay Example The following brief discussion will help the readers to understand the characteristics and aspects of these two measurement processes. Structural Quality Measurement Structural quality measurement generally comprises the resource characteristics in a healthcare system including groups of practitioners, individual practitioners, geographic location, accessibility of services, and systems of care. This structural quality measurement assesses the presumed capacity of practitioners (Donaldson, 1999). It helps to provide quality health care. The structural quality measurement helps the healthcare professional to assess specialty board certification, licensure and training structures. This measurement system helps to provide facility such private accreditation, safe physical attributes, government certification and effective procedures and policies. Process Quality Measurement The present quality of care literature is enriched with performance measurement discussion. It is one of the curre nt terminologies that are related to quality measurement. Process quality performance may include service, convenience, timeline and interpersonal aspects of care. This process quality performance measurement provides awareness and information to the patients. Moreover, it helps the patients to share their views and advice that can help in the decision making process. Example These two quality measurement methods are utilized in healthcare as important quality measurement tools. The following discussion will reveal the effectiveness of these two methods in the improvement of health care institution. Structural Quality Measurement in Healthcare The structural quality measurement method helps to assess nursing home care. It is evident that several complexities involved in the health care organization structure affect the quality of care. Due to the complexity, the health care institutions cannot follow the rules and regulations effectively (Penson & Wei, 2006). Therefore, in order to improve the organizational structure and level of care, several health care institutions implement the structural quality measurement process. A majority of patients in nursing homes used to file complaints against inadequate nursing care. The structural quality measurement helps the nurses or other health care staff to improve their skills and nursing care abilities. This process provides effective facility, training and staffing for the employees in a nursing home. Availability of patient care, nursing home workforce, and effective training programs needs careful review to judge the quality of care. Process Quality Measurement in Healthcare In nursing homes, several frequent problems include hazardous and uncertain environments, inadequate care plans and unsanitary food. In this kind of situation, process quality measurement methods are implemented in order to overcome the issues and improve the service and performance of healthcare. In terms of quality of the clinics, these measu rements generally focus on the management and diagnosis of the diseases. It also addresses preventive care such as disease screening (Brown & Remenyi, 2004). The results of these measurements are provided to the employees. It helps the employees to choose the health plans. A majority of healthcare systems provide consumer report cards. It helped the healthcare institutions to

Project Content Elements Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Project Content Elements - Assignment Example The authors have chosen to focus on a prevalent culture-bound syndrome known as â€Å"Seizisman† for illustration of assessment, cultural beliefs and illness management among Haitians. This article will expound more on my research by showing how the Haitians’ cultural beliefs ultimately have an effect on their health care experience as the exemplification of the culture-bound syndrome, ‘Seizisman’ will indicate. Nicolas, G., DeSilva, A. M., Grey, K. S., & Gonzalez-Eastep, D. (2006). Using a multicultural lens to understand illnesses among Haitians living in America. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 37(6), 702. Published researches show that culture has a significant effect on how mental illnesses are expressed and manifested by diverse ethnic populations. Little has been done to focus on the growing number of Haitians in the United States. This article focuses on clinical observations made on Haitian immigrant women on expression of depression. The paper distinctively considers depression and how it is managed among these Haiti women by relief through God, pain in the body and fighting a losing battle. It then a more methodical and scientific depression investigation and management. Nicolas, G., DeSilva, A. M., Subrebost, K. L., Breland-Noble, A., Gonzalez-Eastep, D., Manning, N., †¦ Prater, K. (2007). Expression and treatment of depression among Haitian immigrant women in the United States: clinical observations. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 61(1),

Should Jouveniles Accused of Violent crimes be Tried and Jailed as Essay

Should Jouveniles Accused of Violent crimes be Tried and Jailed as Adults - Essay Example The cause of the dilemma was whether adolescents were to be tried in the existing adult courts and face punitive measures as applied to adult criminals. The issue of whether they would face trial in adult courts led to a critical question of whether they were 100% responsible for the crime they committed. Even when the assumption was that the adolescents were culpable of the crimes committed, an ardent concern would arise on whether they the competence required to handle the trial process. This paper will highlight that trying juvenile delinquents in adult courts is inappropriate. The onset of the 20th century saw the emergence of the initial literature on the means of resolving juvenile crimes. The institution of juvenile courts would soon follow, a factor shaped by the assumption that adolescents were more likely to adopt new attitudes because of their assumed malleability in comparison to adults. Such assumed malleability evident in adolescents motivated the adoption of rehabilita tion as the most effective strategy in juvenile courts. However, the approach of rehabilitation changed, getting more inclined to the punitive approach that was evident in the adult courts (Ash 146). In the 1960s, the rehabilitative approach was classified as unsuccessful in addressing juvenile crime, and with most of the courts proving highly punitive to juvenile offenders. In the 1970s, increased prophecies of a potential surge of juvenile crimes emerged. This perception served to alter the approach towards juvenile justice. In the following years, many juvenile delinquents received transfer to adult crimes to undergo trial. Many people believed that the prophecies would come true, and that an increase in hardened juvenile criminals would require stringent punitive measures. The perception that determined justice ideologies at that time were shaped by the thinking that adolescents who committed crimes needed to face similar consequences with adults committing similar offenses. How ever, contrary to the predictions, juvenile was only higher in the late 1980s and early 1990s, but subsided immensely in the years that followed. Although the predictions were falsified by the passage of time reduction of crime, they initiated the issue of adolescent culpability to crime, in the punitive system. This issue had been neglected because juvenile courts had adopted a rehabilitative approach. In the punitive system, it was critical for prosecutors to prove that the adolescent had made an informed choice to commit crime (Ash 145). Many people believed that youths above 15 years are able to make informed choice cognitively. However, in cases where evidence indicating the incapacity of an adolescent to carry out mature judgment, then that translated to a minimized culpability. According to Ash, it is critical for courts to realize that adolescence is a period where an individual is subject to increased peer influence, a factor that makes many of them perpetrate group crime. Evidently, this period of growth is defined by many mistakes in many individuals, before the young adolescents can discern individual goals and pursue them. Most of the adolescents only exhibit a crime record during this period of rigorous growth and confusion, but transform into responsible citizens after adolescence. Therefore, trying adolescents in adult courts and labeling them as hardened criminals was unfair, as this was an aspect limited to the adolescence stage, and they

Report on Tesco as a retailer Lab Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

On Tesco as a retailer - Lab Report Example pread over different countries of the world and has become the third largest retailer after Wal-Mart and Carrefour (TIMELINE-Tescos rise to worlds third largest retailer, November 2007). Tesco has been a consumer or customer centric organization and has gained much important information about their behavior through innovative methods. It has devised many new schemes which would initiates customer behavior which was profitable from the group’s perspective. It launched ‘Club card’ which was used to collect information about the customer or the consumer. These would be highly analysed to gain deep understanding of the consumer behaviors based upon which the company forms its strategies and other plans (Humby C., et al, 2003). Though an International retailer now, yet Tesco’s core market lies in the UK which even accounts for 755 of the total sales and profit of the group. In UK Tesco have 2100 stores and 280000 employees working. Thouh primarily a Food retailer Tesco has also diversified into non-food retail also which is also a part of its overall strategy. The group has got four main retail formats under which it functions and also a fifth one which is on the trial stage and is known as Homeplus. Some of the key pointer the group keeps in mind in context of its retail operations is its continued investment in innovation in terms of new product lines which would satisfy the customers. In this context it has launched various in-house brands like Value, Finest, Free From, Healthy Living, Wholefoods and others to cater to a wide range of consumers. They also follow a labelling system for their packages which contain all pertinent nutritional information and which helps the customer’s decision making. Express, Metro, Superstore and Extra are the names of Tesco’s primary formats and added to this is their trial format known as Homeplus (Core UK, 2009; Store Formats, 2009). Besides food retail Tesco also focuses on non-food retail. Under non-food retail the

How Case Managers Benefit from Electronic Medical Records Essay

How Case Managers Benefit from Electronic Medical Records - Essay Example † from SAM Advanced Management Journal, 74, p. 54+. The paper deals with the EMR implementation in health care organizations and the way case managers would benefit from this step. In the modern globalized world high-speed development of technological innovations leads to an overall growth and expansion of computerization. Different companies, firms and organizations are looking for the most convenient ways to facilitate the work of their employees. Therefore, case managers in health care organizations underline the necessity of electronic medical records implementation. Unfortunately, it is evident that very often case managers reject electronic medical records usage. In accordance with Seeman and Gibson (2009) such kind of behavior should be analyzed in terms of Davis's technology acceptance model and Ajzen's theory of planned behavior. The first benefit for case managers when using electronic medical records is the way to costs cutting and health care industry efficiency. Th is can be explained by direct functions of EMR. This technology enables fast and efficient collection of the following data: (demographic, financial, and medical  information). The storage, transmission and processing of the collected data facilitates the work of case managers. There is no need to penetrate into useless and boring paper activities. There is a right way to process data in digital format. Consequently, it is evident that EMR implementation will change â€Å"handwritten order documentation, minimizing transcription errors, and fundamentally reducing clinical mistakes† (Seeman and Gibson, 2009, p. 54). Case managers claim that physicians are able to make more relevant and appropriate decisions in case this technology is implemented. Sometimes, such promptness guarantees lives saving. In accordance with the article, case managers underline the importance of digital data processing in the process of their performance. A possibility to save huge amounts of data fa cilitates the job of case managers in the modern world of digital age. In spite of the fact that the concept of electronic medical records was developed 40 years ago, only the modern digital age enables keeping and collecting data of patients in different amounts. Unfortunately, health care organizations do not pay much attention to implementation of EMR into practice. The article states that less than 10% of American hospitals have enabled their case managers to facilitate their work by means of EMR. Another intimidating fact is that case managers may not have such an opportunity to facilitate their job. There are some predictions that by 2014 electronic medical records are introduced across America, but these predictions can hardly be true. Therefore, the article comprises different points of technological advancement of case management. Summary of the article â€Å"Supporting Management Programs† A strong criticism is also evident in the article â€Å"Supporting Managemen t Programs† (n.d.): â€Å"The issue is one of adoption [of EMR]. Are people really ready to do this? As long as it's easier to script it out and hand it to a voice-activated nurse, that's what the physician will do† (Supporting Management Programs). Another important point, represented in the article is the fact that case managers have many other obligations and it is too hard for them

Project management for business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Project management for business - Essay Example A positive variance is considered good because it indicates that the project is under budget and is ahead of the pre-defined project schedule. Positive variances are useful in re allocating resources and capital from the positive variance tasks to the tasks having negative variance so as to maintain adequate balance and consistency in the project. The opposite happens for negative variances. Two key ratios are used in the earning value analysis. These are Cost Performance Index (CPI) and the SPI. An index of more than 1 is consider good as it indicates that the project is under budget and is age had of the fixed schedule (Philipson and Antvik, 2009). The opposite goes for a performance index lower than 1. The report discusses the importance of project role, process responsibilities and stakeholder management with respect to a prestigious project of the government of the United Kingdom which is the National Programme for Information Technology (NPfIT) of National Health Service (NHS). The report identifies the key reasons of the management of the project which led to the subsequent failure of the project. The report is structured with a background given on the relevant project, a discussion of the key factors affecting the project and suitable recommendations given in order to establish how the project can be sufficiently improved. The National Programme for Information Technology (NPfIT) is an important systems project started by the government of United Kingdom. The project has been criticised due to the huge number of loopholes that have been identified on the project structure and the key aspects of project management. Project roles, responsibilities and stakeholder management are key aspects which decide the success or failure of a project. Therefore, the following report is prepared with the view of identifying these key aspects of the National Programme for Information Technology (NPfIT) and

Communication Shc Essay Example for Free

Communication Shc Essay Parents and other adults who come into the school are more likely to give beneficial support if communication is strong and effective – this, in turn, benefit pupils. Communication takes many different forms, from talking to letters and memos; for a child care workers is very important to develop good communication skills so they can communicate effectively. WHY PEOPLE COMMUNICATE? There are many reasons why people communicate such as: * To give and receive information * To give and receive instructions Discuss a situation * Make a point or outline a concern * Express a need * Negotiate * Develop learning 1. 2 EXPLAIN HOW EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION AFFECTS ALL ASPECTS OF YOUR WORK Effective communication is the key area for developing relationships with others and also covers many different forms of communication. It is a two-way process. The person communicating has to send the right message, but also needs to make sure that it is being correctly received and understood by the other person or people. Communication involves talking or verbal communication, and non-talking or non-verbal communication. To communicate effectively you will need to: * Be very clear about what you are trying to say * Ensure that the person you are talking to understands what you are saying to them * Showing respect and considering the other child’s or adult’s point of view * Have a rapport with the child or adult you are communicating with * Taking time to listen to others * Being clear on key points Maintaining a sense of humour (laughter can be a good icebreaker and is also a great way of relaxing and relieving stress) * Find opportunities to speak (some children lack confidence and need to be given a chance to warm-up first so that they feel able to do so) * Give eye contact and actively listen (if you look away or are busy doing something else, this gives the recipient the message that you are not really interested in what they are saying) * Use body language and facial expressions, an d be approachable(for example, with very young children, get down to their level) * React and comment on what they are saying (you may need to repeat back to pupils to check on your understanding * Be interested, responding and questioning to maintain conversation so that they can build up an understanding about how it works * The age of the child or young person ( children of different ages will require varying levels of attention) The benefits of good communication are: * Your relationship with the children * Your relationship with colleagues * Your relationship with parents 1. 3 EXPLAIN WHY IT IS IMPORTANT TO OBSERVE AN INDIVIDUAL REACTIONS WHEN YOU ARE COMMUNICATING WITH THEM? When communicating with children or adults it is important to take account individuals feelings and what they want to say. You can do this by carefully observing a variety of reactions such as: * Facial expressions and eye contact * Body language: posture and actions or gestures which help to convey meaning * Tone of voice: this can alter the meaning of what has been said * Pauses * Turn taking * Take account of culture and context, such as where English is an additional language * Build a rapport by showing understanding, respect and honesty It is thought that more than 70% of messages are conveyed through non-verbal ways. NON-VERBAL REACTIONS Facial expressions They can be a way to find out how someone feels. Some facial expressions have the same meaning all over the world, but some cultures inhibit the expression of certain emotions, such as anger or disgust. EYE CONTACT People’s eyes can express a wide range of emotions. People may have intense eye contact because they are trying to understand you. However, some cultures or people may avoid eye contact when they do not understand or agree with you, want to avoid showing their feelings or fear negative feedback. Eye contact has five important functions in communications: 1. It regulates the flow of conversation 2. It controls intimacy in a relationship 3. It gives feedback 4. It express emotion 5. It informs both speaker and listener BODY LANGUAGE Your body language can often indicate your attitudes and emotions. If the person you are communicating with has arms crossed over their chest, this may indicate anger or tension (closed position = communication barrier) * If they lean forward with separated arms and legs, this communicat es warmth and friendliness (open communication) * Indifference to your communication may be expressed through shoulders shugs, raised arms, and outstretched hands * Clenched fists and hunching may convey anger * Slouched shoulders may convey a lack of confidence * A posture with the shoulders back in a relaxed position makes it more likely that others will view you as self-confident GESTURES It is important to learn to observe and understand as much as you can about gestures of the adults and children you are communicating with. * People often use gestures such as head and hand movements to reveal or conceal feelings. They can use them to add emphasis, to illustrate points, and to manage turn-taking * A nod may encourage others to continue talking. Some of these gestures may be used as part of a signed language – such as Makaton – or as an aid to verbal communication in a noisy environment, such a the floor of a busy factory. TOUCH It is one of our most basic forms of communication and it is associated with comfort. It is also a non-verbal communication. The amount of everyday touch which we will allow people to have with us is also culturally determined. VOICE TONE Paralanguage is the way in which language is spoken. By altering our tone of voice or changing its pitch, we can convey different emotions. An example of paralanguage is whispered speech. Paralanguage features include the tone of voice (such as flat or bright), the tempo (fast or slow), and the way in which we emphasise certain words. 2. 2 DEMONSTRATE COMMUNICATION METHODS Effective communication happens when the right method is used to send a message so it can be received and understood. Early years practitioners need to know about a range of communication methods. They should also be skilled at identifying the communication and language needs, wishes and preferences of children and adults in the setting. Children and young people’s care settings are used by people from a diverse range of backgrounds who will want to communicate in different ways. Finding out about each individual’s language needs, wishes and preferences is an important part of your role. You can do this by: * asking parents whether their children have particular language or communication needs * reading reports and notes that provide information on a child’s * speech and language development, learning difficulties, disabilities (such as hearing or visual impairment) or physical conditions that affect communication abilities (for example, cleft palate) * being aware that an adult or child’s culture, ethnicity and nationality may affect their language preferences and needs * observing the children and adults who use your setting to see how they use their communication and language skills * asking your supervisor or mentor, senior staff and specialist professionals (such as speech and language therapists and SENCOs) for information, advice and support when communicating with children or adults who have special communication needs. You may need to communicate with adults (parents, work colleagues, visitors or other professionals) who have special communication needs as a result of a hearing or visual impairment, or because English is not their first language. Meeting an individual’s needs, wishes and preferences Talking is not the only way of communication with adults and children in a setting. There are different ways of communication that may be used during the day, such as: * telephone * email * video conferencing * letters * memos * sing language * interpreting 2. 3 HOW AND WHEN TO SEEK ADVICE ABOUT COMMUNICATION There may be situations in which you feel unsure about how you should communicate with a child or adult. Perhaps you will be aware that you are struggling to communicate effectively with somebody. In situations like these, you should seek advice and obtain support. You can do this by: * talking to your supervisor, mentor or line manager about the difficulty – ask for their advice about how to deal withthe problem * talking to communication or language support specialists (teachers, psychologists or speech and language therapists) who work at or spend time in your work setting. When to look for support * When you are anxious about approaching an individual * When you are not sure how to deal with a situation * When child uses another language * When you want to improve your relationship with an individual * When communication is not effective * When you feel communication is not effective If you want to learn how to communicate in a way such as signing or an individual’s home language * If you find out an adult or child has communication needs Where to look for support * Always talk first to the line manager, who may be able to advise you or work with you to seek support * Then she/he will advise you where to find support, and will probably be the person to find appropriate support if it is external * If you work in a children’s centre you are likely to have support services to help both children and adults develop their communication skills BE ABLE TO REDUCE BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION Knowing about different barriers to effective communication will enable you to avoid potential difficulties and adapt your communication approach when this is necessary. Barriers to communicate are things that interfere with a person’s ability to send, receive or understand a message. These may be physical, organisational, personal, to do with language and culture or to do with the presentation of information. Attitudinal example Language and culture WAYS TO REDUCE BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION Barriers to communication can often be overcome, or at least reduced by making changes to the environment, adapting your approach or by using support services such as SENCO (Special Educational Needs Coordinator). Adapting the environment Environmental changes might include: * replacing poor lighting with brighter lighting * reducing background noise or creating some quiet areas putting up multilingual posters and displaying signs clearly * fitting electronic devices such as induction loop systems for hearing-impaired people. Adapting your approach to communication In order to improve communication, early years practitioners can adapt their approa ch by: * making sure they can be seen clearly, facing both the light and the person they are talking to * making sure their mouth is visible when speaking * minimising background noise * using eyes, facial expressions and gestures to communicate as necessary and appropriate. Timing Speaking clearly and slowly, and repeating or rephrasing what you say can make communication more effective for some children and adults. The speed or pace of communication may need to be slower if a person has a hearing or visual impairment, a learning disability or is anxious and confused. It is also important to allow time for the person to digest your communication and to respond. This can mean making silences comfortable while the person works out how to reply. Using support services and specialist devices Early years practitioners should understand the language needs and communication preferences of the children and adults with whom they work. If a child or adult has difficulty communicating in English or has sensory impairments or disabilities that affect their communication skills, specialist communication support may be needed. Learning a few words of another person’s language or developing some basic sign language skills can really help an early years practitioner to establish a positive, supportive relationship with a child and their parents. HOW TO ENSURE THAT COMMUNICATION HAS BEEN UNDERSTOOD There are various ways that you can find out if your communication has been successful. If you can do this, it can help to solve any issues that arise and stop barriers from developing. Active listening Active listening involves paying close attention to what the other person is saying, while also noticing their non-verbal communication. People who are good at active listening also tend to be skilled at using minimal prompts. These are things like nods of the head, ‘Mm’ sounds and encouraging words like ‘Yes, I see’ or ‘Go on’. Skilful use of minimal prompts encourages the person you are communicating with to keep speaking or to say a little more. Clarifying or repeating You can ensure that your communication has been understood by clarifying (repeating back, summarising or rephrasing) aspects of what the person has said during the conversation. You could say something like, ‘Can I just check that you meant †¦? ’ or, ‘Do you mean †¦? ’ You should try not to clarify too often in a conversation as this will interrupt the speaker’s flow; it might also make them think you are ‘parroting’, which may appear insincere. 3. 4 SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND SUPPORT OR SERVICES FOR MORE EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION Royal National Institute for the Deaf (RNID): They give support to people with hearing and sight loss with agencies in different areas. Association of Sign Language Interpreters Qualified in sign language professionals help people who are hard of hearing to communicate. Royal National Institute for the Blind Agencies in different areas give visually impaired people support in communicating. Teaching Development Agency Have courses to support teaching assistants working with children in schools. Common Assessment Framework (CAF) Give practitioners a right to seek support in communicating with parents and children who have specific needs. Department of education The government website or your local authority website gives information about local agencies that will help to communicate with families from a variety of cultures and religions. BIBLIOGRAPHY Children amp; Young People’s workforce by Heinemann Pages 2-20 www. collinseducation. com/resources/hsclevel2chapter1. pdf Pages 1-15 PRESENTED BY MONICA BELALCAZAR INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT SHC 1. 2 CYPW L2 KNOWLEDGE TASK PART TWO 4. 1 WHAT IS CONFIDENTIALITY Confidentiality is not about keeping secrets; it is about protecting an individual’s right to privacy. You may obtain private, personal information from children or parents as part of your work role. As an early years practitioner you have a duty to: * keep personal information about children and families private * only share information about children and families with those who have a right to know or when a parent has given permission. Your workplace will have a confidentiality policy that sets out the rules and procedures on sharing confidential information. You should read this and make sure that you follow it in your practice. You may be asked to sign a confidentiality agreement as part of your employment contract. Again, you should have a clear understanding of what this means in practice. Cross reference with TDA 2. 2 assessment criteria 3. 5 4. 3 SITUATIONS WHERE CONFIDENTIAL INFORMATION MIGHT NEED TO BE PASSED ON There may be times when you have to reveal what you have been told, or have seen, to a more senior person at work or to an external organisation. A parent, child or colleague’s request that you maintain confidentiality can be overridden if: * what they say suggests that a child may be at risk of harm * they reveal information that can be used to protect another person from harm * a court or a statutory organisation, such as OFSTED, asks for specific information about a child. * If a child needs additional support from other professionals * If a child is suspected to be in a situation that risks their safety * If an adult has disclosed information that may raise concerns over their ability to carry out daily duties in your setting * If an outside body such as Ofsted requests to see an adult’s or child’s records When should you seek advice about confidentiality It is best to treat everything you learn about children and their families in your workplace as confidential information; it is advisable to check with your supervisor before you pass on confidential information. Similarly, it is always best to tell your supervisor if you receive any information that concerns you. If someone wants to tell you something ‘in confidence’, you should say that you may not be able to keep the information to yourself because part of your job involves safeguarding children’s welfare. It is then up to the person to decide whether to tell you or not. Always do this in an area where nobody else can overhear what you are saying. It is better to seek advice verbally rather than using communication such as email, which other adults could access. BIBLIOGRAPHY Children amp; Young People’s workforce by Heinemann Pages 2-20 www. collinseducation. com/resources/hsclevel2chapter1. pdf Pages 28-29

The death penalty as a form of punishment

The death penalty as a form of punishment The death penalty has been used throughout all of history as a form of punishment. In the past it was used by leaders to keep citizens in line. There are currently 35 states in the US that have the death penalty in place. This particular social issue is still under a lot of debate in the United States and around the world. Some of the questions it raises is what happens if the wrong person is sentenced, what are the financial costs of the process, how should it be done? However, the main question that is raises is whether it is morally acceptable. Today the death penalty is used in about 70 different countries, a number that has been rapidly declining in the past few decades. In societys effort to be just and to protect the rights of criminals in the justice system, a reasonable effort, let them not ignore or diminish the rights of the victims. Capital punishment is an instrument that insures the murderer will not cause harm to another victim and it authenticates the sacredness of hu man life. There are many philosophers that think capital punishment is morally acceptable if it is done for the right reasons. Two such philosophers are Immanuel Kant and John Stuart Mill. By analyzing Kants ethical theories it can be said that he is for the death penalty as he comes right out and says he is, however there have been objections to this as part of his ethical theory can be interpreted as hypocritical. John Stuart Mills is more straight forward as seen in his book entitled Utilitarianism and also his speech on capital punishment. Kant is an avid believer in the old saying an eye for an eye as evidence by his statement that if someone has committed murder, he must die. In this case, no possible substitute can satisfy justice. He believes a victim has the right to have their accuser inflicted with the same pain that they had. Therefore, if a person commits murder then that person in return should be subject to the death penalty. He goes on to specify that a person must be judged by a court first, but if they are found guilty of murder and the court does not sentence them to death, then they themselves are contributing to the crime. He also believes that a murder does not deserve a worse punishment than the crime they committed. To Kant a life in prison, which in his mind is a life of embarrassment, is worse than a death sentence. In the end Kant believes in the death penalty, but not in the case of all crimes. The punishment must be fitting to the crime itself. If a person is sentenced to death for something li ke stealing then the legal system has failed to achieve its rightful intention. Even though Kant comes right out and says he is in favor of the death penalty, with regard to his ethical theories the line is more blurred. One of the main points of his theory is the idea of a universal law. In the Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals he talks about the categorical imperative. One of the keys to this theory is that one should act so that their maxims can become a universal law. He believes that an immoral action cannot become a universal law. The universal laws in his mind make up what he calls the Kingdom of ends. This is an ideal moral community where everyone is held to the same moral standards, or laws. Universal laws should be followed by everyone, including, and especially those in power. This is where the contradiction can come in. In his defense of the death penalty Kant states that it is the head of states obligation to fulfill this and that as a result of their job they should be exempt from the punishment, however, in his theory of the categorical imp erative he believes that no one including the head of state should be allowed to break a universal law. Another contradiction regarding Kants ethical theory is seen in his respect for persons theory. Kant believes that each person has intrinsic value and this makes them deserving of moral respect from others. Is killing someone giving them moral respect? The argument against this objection is that if a person kills another, not in self defense, do they in return deserve moral respect? Kants answer is no. People who have dignity and reason are the ones who are priceless to society and deserve respect. In order to achieve the ideal Kingdom of Ends there has to be laws, and if people dont follow those laws they need to be punished. This is the only way in which to ensure that people act in moral ways. Another theory that can be used to advocate the death penalty is Utilitarianism. Utilitarianism was written by John Stuart Mill in 1878. Though on the surface it might seem to say capital punishment is not morally right, Mill is actually for the death penalty, as long as it is for the betterment of society as a whole. What is considered right and wrong in society is dependent not on the motive of an action, but the incentive. The difference between the two is a motive is the feeling that makes a person act, while an incentive is what the agent wills as an ultimate end of that action. An example of this distinction can be found in the scenario of saving a drowning man. If someone wants to save the man in the hopes of getting a reward that is still considered the right thing to do. The greed would be the persons motive but the intention would still be to save the mans life. However, if someone wants to save the man in order to torture him afterwards this would be considered wrong. The motive here would be power and the incentive would be to bring pain to the drowning man. Utilitarianism does not evaluate people, but only the actions. It is then the actions that are judged by their consequences. Any consequences that, in the end, betters society as a whole is acceptable. There are many ways that society would benefit from the death penalty. Keeping prisoners locked up for life is expensive, especially when there is overcrowding in prisons and money must be spent on the construction of new ones. Instead this money could be spent on education and healthcare, which in the end would hopefully decrease murders that occur. There is also the possibility that a person will get released from prison. A person who has already committed a crime is much more likely to repeat it which would cause more harm to society. John Stuart Mills not only advocates the death penalty through his ethical theory of Utilitarianism, but directly in his speech to the British Parliament in 1868 in defense of it. He believes, as does Kant, that sentencing someone to life in prison is worse than sentencing someone to death.(footer). This is the basis of his argument, that the death penalty is a more humane form of punishment than a person serving a life in a tomb. Capital punishment has been used throughout all of history but the real question is does the death penalty really work in modern times? The death penalty can be morally acceptable if it is used for the right reasons and not abused by people who just want power. When it is for the betterment of society as a whole it can be a justifiable action as said by two of the most respected philosophers Immanuel Kant and John Stuart Mills. Through their ethical theories, though Kants has been scrutinized, and in direct quotes they have supported the death penalty. It is a declining form of punishment in the modern world, and continues to be one of the most heated issues in the United States and around the world. The death penalty can be morally justified if it is not abused and used in the right way. When it is used in such a way it can actually be a more humane, though still affective, form of punishment that protects the sanctity of human life and betters society. I defend this penalty, [the death penalty] when confined to the atrocious cases, on the very round for which it is commonly attacked- on that of humanity to the criminal; as beyond comparison the least cruel mode in which it is possible adequately to deter from the crime(65).

Early Learning Environment | Reflective Essay

Early Learning Environment | Reflective Essay Marie Grey Reflective Diary Introduction For this reflective diary portfolio I have chosen to talk about two completely different activities, one outdoor and one indoor. The outdoor activity promotes holistic development in many aspects which I will discuss within the reflection and the main factor which affects this activity is the environment. In the indoor activity it also promotes different areas of holistic development which I will also discuss in the portfolio below in more details. The main factor here is relationships, family life or community and also social factors. I feel I have learnt a lot throughout this module. In regards of the learning environment and how important it is for the overall learning or development of a child. The environment plays an important role within the Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) setting. In my opinion the environment as a whole includes the centre, areas, indoors and out, materials, curriculum and everything that surrounds or affects the child. Practitioners have a duty to provide a warm, safe, encouraging, supporting, friendly environment for each child to help them develop holistically and to their full potential. Age appropriate activities, materials, equipment, books and games are very important. Why I mention these areas, if the children are doing activities or have materials that are for younger children than them. They will stay at the developmental stage they are currently at without progression. On the other hand if the materials/equipment is suitable for older children they will have difficulty. For example if a 3yr old is doing a puzzle suitable for a 6yr old, it may be too hard for the child. They may become frustrated and gain a dislike for puzzles or lose interest altogether missing out on learning opportunities. Daily routines are equally important in their own right I have learned through this module how routines affect children. Daily routines are in place for the benefit of both staff and children. It benefits staff so they have an overall goal for the day to work towards. Also it allows staff to get the work they need to do done within a certain time-frame. How I think it supports and helps children, is by giving the structure and a sense of time, as children do not fully understand the concept of time. This makes it easier for them to identify what time of day it is feel it helps the day feel less long for those who are there for a full day. Also routine is important for pre-schoolers to prepare them for school. A big one which I feel is very important in every setting and in life would be equality and diversity. I have learned ways of promoting this. By doing activities and discussing different cultures with the children. It is very important to promote these areas as there are lots of different family types and cultures attending our settings. Space is very important for children. They need space to run around, explore, play and do activities. If there is limited space children haven’t got the freedom to play comfortably and grow as individuals. Also I find some children do not like others in their personal space and get very upset when others are too close to them. To prevent unnecessary anxiety a spacious area where a group can play comfortably is ideal. I will discuss further about areas I have gained more understanding and knowledge about and also my personal, professional and working as part of a team. Activity 1: The first activity I am going to talk about is an outdoor activity. It is called the Parachute. This activity involves a big colourful parachute with a group of 2-4year olds and also adult involvement. The reason for this activity is to promote well-being, thinking and exploring, communication and identity and belonging. While also supporting the learning and holistic development of each child while having fun doing so. Before I started this activity I informed the other staff members about what I was going to be doing and I asked them if they had a parachute on the premises in case I needed to get one. They had one already, so I proceeded into the storage room and took it out the back. I shook it out and checked it for health and safety matters to make sure it was ready and safe for use with the children. When I came back in it was time to get the children ready to go outside. When their coats where on I told them I had planned a fun activity out the back garden for them to play. They were very excited. We proceeded out and I called the children down to where I had set up the activity in the most spacious part of the garden. All the staff and children joined in on the activity and we had lots of fun doing it. The children threw balls onto the parachute and we lifted it up and down to try get the balls back off again. Then the children ran under the parachute while the staff manoeuvred it up and dow n for them. When they were finished the activity their play didn’t stop there. Some of the children wanted to put the parachute on top of the play house. When they asked if they could I simply said â€Å"of course you can†. The children where then leading the activity themselves. I decided it best if I just stood back and let them enjoy and lead their own play. Impact on holistic development. P.I.L.E.S Physical- The activity helped strengthen muscles, Hand-eye co-ordination, Gross and fine motor skills. The children were using their hands to grip/hold the parachute. Using bigger muscles in their arms moving them up and down. Intellectual- Imagination, thinking of new games, ideas, leading their own activities. Language-Communicating with each other, discussing ideas for games, learning new words such as â€Å"Parachute†. For children who have not done the activity before. Emotional- I feel this activity had a calming effect as the children saw it move in the wind. Also being outside would impact their well-being and relationship building within the group. Social- As this was a group activity it impacted on the children socially, they needed to share the parachute and work together in order for it to move. Learning opportunities. The learning opportunities that occurred during this activity where the development of concepts such as moving the parachute. Learning what is high and low, fast and slow, up and down, under and over. How this affects the children’s overall holistic developmental, the activity is promoting all areas of P.I.L.E.S. The affect can differ depending on the development of each child. Where some may be advanced for example in their physical development such as their fine motor skills, others may be more advanced in their cognitive development or intellectual development, understanding the above concepts better. In my opinion the affects it has on the child’s holistic development are beneficial. The activity is also providing the children with time to be out in the fresh air and giving them some exercise. Which will benefit the whole child and their well-being. Factors Environment- The outdoor environment provided freedom and space, the weather was nice, sunny, dry and slightly windy so the parachute could take flight! If there had been no wind the activity wouldn’t have gone as well. Activity 2: The second activity was an indoor activity. A family tree/wall. This activity involved a group of four children at different times. This activity in my opinion supported each child’s identity and belonging, well-being, communication, and also thinking and exploring. It also supported each child’s holistic development such as language, social, emotional, physical and intellectual as well as other factors that affect the child such as family and peers or community. I started by informing staff what I was planning to do and see if they had the materials I required. I discussed with the supervisor a time to carry out this activity and we agreed to break up the groups into four. The children involved where between 2-4years.I started by drawing a big tree, cutting it out, sticking it to a cardboard background to stiffen it. Then I mixed up some brown paint and called groups of four children down to the back table to paint. Each child got a branch or part of the trunk to paint . I then got the groups to draw their hand for the leaves. I cut them out, the children coloured them and drew their family on each fingertip. I could not use photographs for this activity because of personal reasons regarding a particular child. Impact on holistic development P.I.L.E.S Physical-The children were using paintbrushes and crayons. These impacts on their fine motor skills, strengthening their hands and pincer grips. Intellectual- The children had to concentrate on the activity, think about their families, and count family members. Language- The children talked about their families, the colours they were using, their pets, and communicated which each other. Emotional- I feel this impacted the most as the children expressed how they felt through their creativity and speech talking about people in their lives that played a big role in their lives. Their family. Social- It was a small or intimate group and the children socialised very well together. Talking and discussing the activity. Sharing the materials. Learning opportunities. This activity provided the children in my opinion, the opportunity to learn and explore different ideas on families and cultures. It also allows them to discuss their families and cultures or traditions. They have been presented the opportunity to learn about types of family structures such as one parent, two parent, same sex, adoptive/foster or any other types of families the children may have. Even pets in their family. Siblings and grandparents. They can discuss their own backgrounds and learn more about cultures and beliefs from each other. In my opinion this affects the holistic development of the child in many ways such as, how they connect or socialise with others in groups. The child as a whole is not only just their P.I.L.E.S but also their personality, environment, values, culture and experiences. Factors Social/Culture- I feel a factor that affected this activity was social/culture and community/family. How this affects in my opinion, the children expressed their feelings about their families and home life. This has a big impact on children as the family/guardians/parents are the prime care givers they affect every aspect of the child’s overall development and well-being. My personal and professional needs. Personally I have learned to be more confident and trust my own judgement more. Also to observe more and stand back letting the children lead their own activities’ feel more confident to share my ideas and opinions. Professionally I have learned to use different ways and approaches with children when it comes to behaviour feel I have progressed professionally and I am more confident to lead activities and communicate my ideas with staff feel I can work more professionally within a team and I am able to work on my own intuition with confidence that I am doing a good job and using best practice. I also feel I have helped other staff members identify their learning needs by giving them advice and ideas on their own learning, as there are some staff doing their Fetac level 5.I try to help them in any way I can by recommending activities and books that may help them. Personally I feel I need to learn more about each child’s interests so I can create more activities that the will benefit the children. Also I need to do more research on areas of development and how the factors that affect children. Professionally I need to learn more about each family and their cultures or beliefs so I can help the children explore these areas within the crà ¨che. I feel it will benefit myself and other staff members involved. In a professional sense I feel I have learned a lot, but still have a lot more to learn. Working as part of a team and maintaining professional conduct. â€Å"Practising in a professional manner requires that individuals have skills, knowledge, values and attitudes appropriate to their role and responsibility within the setting. In addition, it requires regular reflection upon practice and engagement in supported, ongoing professional development.†(Siolta Standards 2014) In my opinion it is very important to work professionally .Towards parents and staff members working effectively and in a professional manner shows external people how you use best practice in your setting. How you as an individual represent yourself, the sitting and the standard your service provides. In order to maintain good professionalism you must be able to work and communicate efficiently and efficiently with your team, management, children and parents. Respect is very important, to be professional I feel you must have respect for your colleagues, management, parents and children. Being respectful of other people’s ideas/opinions, backgrounds, choices, even if you may not agree with them or have the same values. Treating people with respect and consideration of their personal beliefs and cultures is very important and shows good professionalism. Staying supportive within your team can resolve or even prevent conflict or clashes with co-workers. Being supportive of their ideas and views can reflect on how the job is done. Working in a team is vital in childcare and practitioners may need support emotionally as well in some cases where the job or stress of the job may overwhelm some team members. We may need support ourselves one day and it’s nice to know your team are behind you to encourage and support you no matter what the situation may be. Building a good strong working relationship with your team not only benefits you and the team it also benefits the little people you are caring for. Again respect comes up, we are role models for the children we care for and if they don’t see us being respectful and supportive towards each other, how can we expect them to respect us or each other. What you put out there you receive back. Confidentiality and trust are equally important in their own right. We must be professional and use confidentiality in all areas of working. Towards parents, staff and children this is vital in childcare. Equality is important in any profession especially childcare all involved should treated as equals whether you are only starting your career or are the leader/supervisor/manager or most experienced. In my opinion if trust is lost or you become known as untrustworthy your professional career and relationship with all involved will suffer. When trust is gone it can never be replaced. (Class notes Team Leadership: 6N1948). Trusting your teams judgement is also very important, it helps the team prosper and grow knowing you trust and have faith in their decisions. All the areas I have discussed will help the team become stronger as a unit, therefor making it easier to provide the best possible care you can for the children and the support the parents may need whether they ask for it or not they will know it’s there when they need it. â€Å"Effective team members promote self-expression of ideas and feelings about group problems and operations. The staff members are candid and seem to know how other staff members feel about topics or issues being discussed. Ineffective teams avoid discussion of personal feelings or ideas. The general attitude is that discussion of feelings is inappropriate or potentially dangerous.† (homesteadschools.com 2013) References Siolta the National Quality Framework for Early Childhood Education ‘Standard 11: Professional Practice’ cited on: http://www.siolta.ie/services_standard11.php Accessed online [12th of June 2014] Fisher, Kenneth. (2013)_ â€Å"Leading Self-Directed Work Teams: A Guide to Developing New Team Leadership Skills [Online], Available at:http://www.homesteadschools.com/lcsw/courses/TeamBuilding/Section10.htm [Accessed 11th November 2013] (Class notes Team Leadership: 6N1948) unpublished 2013 Advocacy: People With Intellectual Disabilities Advocacy: People With Intellectual Disabilities This essay will look at the role of advocacy in relation to representing the views and interests of people with intellectual disabilities attending a day service. It will briefly look at the historical evolution of advocacy in general and then look in particular at collective self-advocacy and citizen advocacy models and how these are employed for the social inclusion of people with intellectual disabilities. Day services for people with intellectual disabilities are considered to be one of the major service providers but traditionally have contributed little to the promotion of social inclusion and self-determination (Fyson and Ward, 2004:64). Advocacy has a role in changing these services by working in partnership with service users to increase social participation and opportunities for everyday experiences such as employment and further education (Fyson and Ward, 2004). From reviewing and reading literature on the topic it is clear that there is much debate as to what advocacy means. Bateman (2000) suggests that the different types of advocacy can all be interpreted differently and therefore there is no universal definition of advocacy. But all have a common theme; helping another person obtain something from someone with power (Bateman, 2000:16). The evolving of advocacy into the multi-model that it now is has come from citizen advocacy and the representation of citizens views (Henderson and Pochin, 2002). The key principles within advocacy are respect for the clients view, as much empowerment and as little dependency for the client as possible, facilitation of informed choices, the advocate to be independent and choice of advocacy for the client (Woods, 2003:49). A key factor of advocacy is that it allows for the expression of views and wishes of marginalised people who are often relying on advocacy as a means of creating awareness of social issues but also as a means to assess their rights and entitlements (Henderson and Pochin, 2002). The attainment of rights is a key part of advocacy and that advocacy has a role in creating awareness of injustices (Bateman, 2000). But in relation to people with disabilities the rights are limited and are not enforceable by law (Lawson, on the Web, nd). A right can be defined as any claim that is morally just or legally granted as allowable (Final Report, 1995, cited in Forum for People With Disabilities, 2004:57). Historically people with intellectual disabilities have been socially excluded from society by prejudice and discrimination (About Learning Disabilities, on the Web, nd). Social exclusion rather than social inclusion was the norm where people with intellectual disabilities were excluded from their communities by residing in institutions outside the community and were not granted the same opportunities as others in the general population. Social inclusion in relation to people with disabilities is to increase their participation within society and to support them to have independent lives (Office for Social Inclusion, 2003). In relation to social inclusion many organisations such as voluntary and community organisations have used the concept of advocating for their members to improve social inclusion and participation (Woods, 2003:21). Traditionally the perceptions regarding people with disabilities was to see the person based on their perceived limitations but that these were challenged by disability groups that rights held by other citizens to also be attributed to people with disabilities (Barnes and Mercer, 2003). The European Social Charter (1996) states that people with disabilities have a right to independence, social integration and participation in the life of the community (Lawson on the Web, nd:8). Advocacy in relation to people with intellectual disabilities allows that each person has value (Gray and Jackson, 2002:9), which is in direct contrast to the historical view held by society of devaluing people with intellectual disabilities. That people with learning disabilities are citizens with the same rights and responsibilities as other citizens (Gray and Jackson, 2002:10). The most effective model of advocacy is that which matches the service users needs but there is often the need to employ more than one type of advocacy where the general overall aim is to promote the attainment of skills for self-advocacy (Woods, 2003). In relation to the needs of people with intellectual disabilities they can be considered to be the most complex in that the disability may not just have cognitive repercussions but physical disabilities also. The ranges of the intellectual disability that they are experiencing can result in diminished ability to communicate and cognitive ability. The complexity of their disabilities can result in limited opportunities for self-determination and being excluded socially from society (Inclusion Ireland, on the Web, 2003). A key challenge for a person with intellectual disabilities is to be seen as an individual that has the same rights and needs even though they have a greater dependency on their care-givers because of their intellectual disability (Inclusion Ireland, on the Web, 2003). Self-advocacy Model Self-advocacy can be employed for people with intellectual disabilities and that organisations need to support opportunities for self-determination in relation to their lives (Inclusion Ireland, on the Web, 2003). Self-advocacy is defined as a process in which an individual, or group of people, speak or act on their own behalf in pursuit of their own needs and interests (Bateman, 2000:18). Key to self-advocacy is that the individual should have the skills that allow them to represent on their behalf (Woods, 2003). According to Bateman (2000:18) the most influential form of self-advocacy is that of collective advocacy where people with similar needs come together as a group to seek a particular outcome the sum of the whole is greater than the sum of the individual parts. The collective self-advocacy model has some of its roots in trade unionism where during the 1940s collective advocacy took place during the World War II to challenge the welfare system. Civil rights movements during the 1960s in America drove collective self-advocacy regarding the rights for marginalised people (Bateman, 2000). As societies have modernised the concept of community has been lost to the importance of the individual but collective self-advocacy is continually used by groups to bring change on a macro level (Bateman, 2000). Collective self-advocacy is often the most effective form for people with intellectual disabilities in that for many as an individual standing alone the choices that they have are to agree to the services on offer or have none (Whitehead and Hughey, 2004). Group self-advocacy is of importance to people with intellectual disabilities because it can provide the opportunities to gain skills in communication, increased confidence and to express their view in relation to their rights and wishes (Woods, 2003). Shoultz (1992, cited in Woods, 2003) states that group advocacy can benefit people who do not have verbal communication skills to gain the confidence and skills to advocate for the group and themselves. An example of collective self-advocacy is People First, in Canada, People First have as a collective self-advocacy model challenged that no person with an intellectual disability will be forcibly required to be sterilised (Bateman, 2000). Therefore in order to challenge discrimination that many people with disabilities have joined collective self-advocacy groups to fight social injustices (Whitehead and Hughey, 2004). The characteristics of collective self-advocacy are that the group share experiences and knowledge to work together to address injustices (Henderson and Pochin, 2002). Collective self-advocacy promotes action on a macro level so that the vast majority of the collective group will benefit from the collective action that is being advocated for (Bateman, 2000). Woods (2003:36) supports this by stating collective self-advocacy can directly change services within an organisation and can be a resource for dealing with the day-to-day issues of participants. An illustration of this in relation to the scenario of the day service could be that the individuals together agree that a change in service delivery is required to enhance their independent living skills such as learning to operate the phones and participate as receptionists at the centre as a means to gain employment. There are different types of collective self-advocacy but the most common are the groups based in services (Woods, 2003:35). This is where the group is within a centre or service and generally meet during a calendar month to discuss issues that are of concern to the group members. A key worker or staff member may be needed to act as facilitator (Woods, 2003). A key aspect of self-advocacy in general is that it is driven by the person and in this way collective self-advocacy groups often represent a particular issue or group (Henderson and Pochin, 2002). Organisations such as St. Michaels House and Enable Ireland have group self-advocacy within their organisations (Woods, 2003). Collective self-advocacy can often be the ground breaker in provision of advocacy services within an organisation (Woods, 2003). Collective self-advocacy could be viewed as a means to support inclusion and participation by encouraging person power to impact on service development in general and to promote changes in social policies (Whitehead and Hughey, 2004). In terms of participation levels group advocacy within an organisation would be higher than other forms of group self-advocacy (Woods, 2003). A criticism of collective or group self-advocacy in relation to people with intellectual disabilities could be that the term self-advocacy implies that the person is directly representing themselves. But that in reality this is often not the case as in order to self-advocate a person with intellectual disabilities often requires a professional person to act as a support (Bateman, 2000). Also in relation to group self-advocacy within a service a criticism has been as to what degree are the choices made and available to the group members free from influence from the service and staff that may be facilitating the group advocacy meeting. Independent group self-advocacy away from the service has been suggested as a means to remove any potential service influence but that this may reduce the participation as it is not based within the service that is being used. Another criticism is that within the group self-advocacy that the focus can be based on the views and opinions of the most verbally expressive service users and therefore may not reflect the group as a whole (Woods, 2003). Also collective or group self-advocacy although initially established to challenge for collective needs or rights sometimes the group then becomes a service provider which would challenge its objectivity in relation to representation of wishes (Bateman, 2000). Citizen Advocacy Model Another advocacy model that is considered to be effective for people with intellectual disabilities is citizen advocacy (Woods, 2003). Citizen advocacy relates to the persuasive and supportive activities of trained selected volunteers and co-ordinating staffà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. working on behalf of people with disabilities who are not in a good position to exercise or defend their rights as citizens (Woods, 2003:40). Citizen advocacy is considered to be supportive of people with intellectual disabilities who are often more dependent on the services that they are utilising and often more dependent on other people to advocate on their behalf (Walmsley, 2002). Citizen advocacy developed in the 1960s in America with the civil rights movement (Bateman, 2001). It was developed into the disability sector as a result of parents with children with disabilities observing that they received more relevant services when someone acted on their behalf as an advocate (Bateman, 2000). OBrien (1987, cited in Bateman, 2000:24) suggests that citizen advocacy has at its core the concept of the valued citizen who is not paid and is not a member of a service provider organisation. Woods (2003:40) also supports the concept of the valued citizen as being someone who does not have a problem getting heard, working with a person who is discriminated against. Another element of citizen advocacy is that through citizen participation actively advocating for the wishes and rights of the person that they are in turn challenging traditional perceptions of people marginalised within society to have full inclusion and participation as all citizens (Woods, 2003). The characteristics of citizen advocacy are that the advocate is independent from the organisation or service that the person is using or attending, that the advocate is not a relative and is not paid for advocating (Forum of People with Disabilities, 2001). The nature of the needs of a person with significant disabilities would suggest that citizen advocacy is best met when the advocate can support in the long term (Woods, 2003:41). People with intellectual disabilities have varying levels of needs and degrees of intellectual disability and citizen advocacy could be considered to be supportive of people with intellectual disabilities who could be considered to have greater needs (Woods, 2003). This model and has its foundation in normalisation and social role valorisation (Walmsley, 2002:26). Normalisation being that people with disabilities should have opportunities to experience everyday occurrences (Walmsley, 2002). Examples of citizen advocacy are Ealing and Harrow Citizen Advocacy and the Galway Citizen Advocacy Project as cited by Woods, (2003). The importance of citizen advocacy in relation to social inclusion is that by working in partnership with the person with intellectual disabilities to have every day opportunities as other members of the general population that it can reduce exclusion through its concept of giving value to the person (Fyson and Ward, 2004). This can result in challenging the societal view that with disabilities are a homogeneous group (Butler and Forrest, 1991, cited in Bateman, 2000:25). Citizen advocacy can be a means of identifying gaps in service provision and challenge discrimination and social exclusion (Bateman, 2000). The advocate rel ationship develops over a long period of time and that this creates opportunities to consistently support the person with intellectual disabilities to build their skills and their self-belief (Woods, 2003). The citizen advocate has two functions one of representing the person and secondly to act as a social medium by the personal relationship that is established between the advocate and the person (Woods, 2003). The actual volunteering of time to create a relationship is an important aspect within citizen advocacy in that for many people with intellectual disabilities the range of social opportunities available to them may be more limited than other people with disabilities (Woods, 2003). A criticism of citizen advocacy is that because of its voluntary nature that the advocate can be viewed by services to not have the knowledge or expertise to fully advocate on behalf of the person with intellectual disabilities (Forum of People with Disabilities, 2001). Another criticism is that conflict in terms of obtaining needs and rights can be an element of advocacy and that an inability to understand the function of conflict to create change can prevent citizen advocacy being effective (Bateman, 2000). Some self-advocacy groups have criticised citizen advocacy that it is maintaining the dependency bias that society assumes in relation to people with intellectual disabilities (Henderson and Pochin, 2002). Citizen advocacy which is often employed as a model for people with intellectual disabilities has in its application supported that people with learning difficulties need the intervention of able-bodied advocates if their wishes are to be taken seriously (Pochin, 2002:107). Bu t citizen advocacy could be considered to be supportive of social inclusion by its concept of valuing all people and promoting community participation (Whitehead and Hughey, 2004). Another criticism is that citizen advocacy requires time and commitment from the advocate and that a challenge is to find citizens that have the time available to give (Forum of People with Disabilities, 2001). Conclusion In conclusion advocacy should include that every individual should be listened to and to have an active part regarding the outcomes of their life (Woods, 2003). Advocacy has at its core the attainment of rights and needs (Bateman, 2000). Social inclusion could be considered to be supported by the principles of advocacy that promote empowerment and choice for people with intellectual disabilities (Woods, 2003). But for both advocacy models in relation to people with intellectual disabilities the greatest challenge seems to be that of asserting their right whether moral or legal to avail of the everyday opportunities that the general population can experience (Forum of People With Disabilities, 2001). That society generally questions the ability of a person with intellectual disabilities to self-determine and this has impacted on the development of advocacy models for people with intellectual disabilities (Gray and Jackson, 2002). The provision of advocacy services for people with inte llectual disabilities although attempting to challenge inequalities that unless people with disabilities have a legalised right to services that advocacy is meaningless without rights (Bateman, 2000:43). That by not enforcing rights regarding services and no proper recourse through the legal system because these services are not rights that advocacy cannot be truly effective in supporting social inclusion (Bateman, 2000). That enforcing rights to services would support the client becoming the consumer and could be an effective way of using advocacy to create social inclusion (Bateman, 2000). A challenge for both models is the funding required is often allocated to other supports and this can be contributed in some ways to the fact that advocacy is not universally defined and is not universally legislated for (Bateman, 2000).